Use and Abuse of Media - 7426 Words

At the Intersection of Health, Health Care and Policy Cite this article as: W DeJong and J A Winsten The use of mass media in substance abuse prevention Health Affairs, 9, no.2 (1990):30-46 doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.9.2.30 The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is available at: http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/9/2/30.citati on For Reprints, Links Permissions: http://healthaffairs.org/1340_reprint s.php E-mail Alerts : http://content.healthaffairs.org/subscriptions/etoc.dt l To Subscribe: http://content.healthaffairs.org/subscriptions/online. shtml Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution Downloaded from content.healthaffairs.org by Health Affairs on October 18, 2011 by†¦show more content†¦These recommendations are based on: (1) our newly completed two-year study of previous mass media campaigns and innovative practices in advertising, marketing, and public relations; and (2) our experience in implementing the Harvard Alcohol Project, a research-based media campaign conducted in collaboration with the nation’s broadcast, advertising, and entertainment industries. What Can Mass Media Campaigns Accomplish In Health Promotion? When the broadcast media emerged as a major force, many public health advocates assumed that the presentation of factual information through public communication campaigns would automatically change attitudes and lead to more healthful behavior. Subsequently, when several such campaigns produced disappointing results, this boundless optimism was replaced by the highly pessimistic view that mass media campaigns to change behavior ar e doomed to failure. Investigators recognized that a campaign could reinforce existing behavior, but this was viewed as the most that could be achieved. Pessimists noted that the apparent success of commercial advertising had raised unrealistic expectations about the potential of mass media to change behavior. In fact, there are basic differences in the goals of commercial advertising and public health campaigns. Commercial advertising seldom is designed to bring about new attitudes or patterns of behavior; rather, it intends toShow MoreRelatedDrug Abuse And The Social Problem957 Words   |  4 Pagestime before it came to be â€Å"defined† as such. What is a drug abuse in the social problem? Drug abuse is desire to use more drug than enough or than what prescription of the doctor in order to be comfortable and stimulants at the end the user become addicted and hopeless. Drug can be used with any gender according the age in the different environment and location, such as Community, society, school, prison, groups and Home. Drugs abuse can be anything like cigarettes, alcohol and Cocaine, MarijuanaRead MoreSubstance Abuse - Social Pandemic1653 Words   |  7 PagesAs the use of illegal drugs and alcohol continues, substance abuse across America has become a very serious social problem. It is mental illness that has an effect on different races, classes and genders. The affects of substance abuse has caused countless of people to feel heartache and develop feelings of hopelessness. With alcohol and drugs readily available through prescription or on the streets (Butler,2010), it is obvious why many are acquiring addictive patterns to these accessible substancesRead MoreDrug Abuse Essay894 Words   |  4 PagesDrug abuse is a disease where people compulsively seek and use drugs knowing the harmful consequences (Nida, 2017). Most of Americas top social problems relate to or are impacted by drug abuse: drugged driving, child abuse, violence, and stress. Drugs take an immense toll on our society at many different levels. This includes health care expenditures, lost earnings, and costs associated with crime and accidents (Nida, 2017). For example, according to NIDA(National Institute On Drug Abuse) IllicitRead MoreThe Effects Of Drug Abuse On The United States1717 Words   |  7 PagesIn an attempt to demonstrate the absurdity of the drug abuse problems in the United States, it should be brought to light that the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use Health estimated that â€Å"27 million people aged 12 or older have used an illicit drug in the past 30 days† (Hedden, Kennet, Lipari, Medley, Tice, 2015). As gun violence has become a popular topic in America over the past few years due to its’ related deaths, many Americans’ fail to realize that more people are dying from drug overdoseRead MorePolice Officers And Officers Police And Corrections Officers1546 Words   |  7 PagesCould Forget the Things My Eyes Have Seen Abuse by police officers and officers in penal institutions is a big subject in the media now. Turn to a news station and the chances of seeing at least on case are pretty high. The most unreported incidents, however, is actually assault on police officers and corrections officers. The media does not report these issues nearly as much as it tries to portray officer assault on criminals. Why is it that the media covers up the big issue of officer assaultRead MoreThe Effects Of Drug Abuse Among Youth1346 Words   |  6 PagesThere is a growing trend of drug abuse among youth which can’t be ignored in today’s society. It has been reported that â€Å"the greater numbers of young people were reporting weekly consumption of alcohol and young drinkers were consuming larger amounts per drinking occasion† (Coleman Cater, 2003). Teenagers who persistently use drug out of control often experience serious problems. Those problems are related to physical health, menta l health, academic difficulties, social relationships, and so onRead MoreEssay on Adolescent Substance Abuse1656 Words   |  7 PagesRunning Header: Substance Abuse Adolescent Substance Abuse Dana Sweitzer Liberty University Abstract Adolescent substance abuse is a major problem in society. There are many risk factors that can contribute to adolescent substance abuse. One of the main risk factors is peer pressure. When adolescents start at a young age there is an increase in health problems, addiction, and over all poor social outcomes. Parental influence has substantial effect on adolescents because the adolescent seesRead MoreHow Violent Media Affects Children949 Words   |  4 PagesThere is a very important social issue that must be addressed to save our future generations from decline. The social issue I will be analyzing is how violence in media affects children. â€Å"Thus brutality itself becomes at once the means to success and the content of success –a success that is defined in its most general terms, not as accomplishment or specific gain, but simply as the unlimited possibility of aggression† (Warshow 433). Doing evil deeds to reach a certain level of success is how a gangsterRead Mor e Domestic Violence Essay with Annotated Bibliography1593 Words   |  7 PagesPhysical abuse is the most obvious form, but this is not to say that outsiders always recognize it. Generally, physical violence causes bodily harm, using a variety of methods. Slapping, pushing, throwing, hitting, punching, and strangling are only a few methods. An object or weapon may or may not be used. There is not always physical evidence of physical abuse such as bruising, bleeding, scratches, bumps, etc., therefore, absence of physical marks does not necessarily mean physical abuse had notRead MoreSocial Media And Its Effects On Society Essay1416 Words   |  6 Pages Social media sites, including Facebook, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Twitter, and Instagram, provide opportunities for people to connect with each other and have become exceedingly popular in recent years. However, there are increased numbers of mental health problems such as mood problems, emotional issues, and addiction in teenagers as th ey overuse social media. Advocates of social media may claim that social networking platforms benefit adolescents by increasing connectivity, helping people make friends

The History of Abortion - 2408 Words

Abortion is the process of intentionally ending a pregnancy. Abortion touches the hearts of many because its consequences result in the loss of a human life. Its controversy stems from the fact that people’s opinions on this matter are rooted in their value systems, religious beliefs, and political socialization. Its prominence in political discussions today is likely to continue given the relationship between unwanted pregnancies and overpopulation. There is often debate about the constitutionality of abortion, as it is not specifically addressed by any doctrine. As a result, there has never been an explicit national law enacted. This paper will explore the many facets of abortion. For organizational purposes, it will first provide†¦show more content†¦This method is highly controversial and even illegal in some states. As a last resort, a hysterectomy may be performed. In this process, incisions are made in the abdomen and the fetus is removed. In some cases, the baby has been born alive in spite of using this method. Constitutionality of Abortion The first major case in the scope of abortions was Griswold v. Connecticut in 1964. In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that a state’s ban on the use of contraceptives to prevent pregnancy violated a married couple’s right to privacy. Estelle Griswold, Executive Director of Planned Parenthood of Connecticut, was found guilty of providing illegal contraceptives and appealed the case to the Supreme Court. The law did not only apply to married couples, but also unmarried as well. It was also called into question under the jurisdiction that it violated justice and liberty rights of an individual. The main argument in this case overall was the violation of a couple’s right to privacy. Although this case is not directly associated with abortion, it was an important staple in establishing a â€Å"couples right to privacy† and contradicting catholic views about sexual health and contraceptives. The most well known case in the progression of abortion laws has been Roe v. Wade in 1973. This was a case in which the Supreme Court ruled that states could not enact abortion laws that prohibited a woman from getting an abortion unlessShow MoreRelatedThe History of Abortion764 Words   |  4 PagesAbortion is a medical practice to terminate a womans pregnancy in the first 3 months. The history of abortion starts father before the pinnacle case of Roe v Wade in 1973. The supreme court made it legal to get an abortion and this is seen as an important turning point for the american health care policies for women. Before this court case to render it legal it had been performed for thousands of years and in every society known. It was legal when settlers first came to the united states beforeRead More History Of Abortion Essay1019 Words   |  5 Pages The History of Abortion nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Abortion is the ending of a pregnancy before birth. An abortion results in the death of the embryo or fetus and may be either spontaneous or induced. For years, abortion has been an extremely controversial subject. The history of abortion reaches back not just decades, but centuries, and even milleniums. Today, policies regarding legal abortion in the U.S. is being debated everywhere. Many myths and misconceptionsRead MoreThe History of Abortion and Its Effects2555 Words   |  11 PagesAbortion is the conclusion of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. It can also happen unconsciously, which is known as a â€Å"miscarriage.† For centuries the Church accepted abortion and the law did not punish it. Anti-abortion laws began in the United States in the 19th century and in the 20th century many states banished abortion. Abortion laws have been passed for many reasons such as the concern for womenà ¢â‚¬â„¢s health, the need of medical professionRead MoreA Quick History Of Abortion Pills1218 Words   |  5 Pagesquick history of abortion pills and how they came to be comes from WebMD. The top drug used for abortions is mifepristone also known as RU-486. Testing of the drug began in 1983 when the FDA issued a permit. Jan. 1993 President Clinton asked for the FDA to reconsider their import ban. In 1994-1995 the Population Council the U.S. patent rights for mifepristone, and clinical trials began. In September 1996 the FDA issued an approval for RU-486 to be used as a safe alternative to surgical abortion, butRead MoreAbortion : A Long And Dangerous History1532 Words   |  7 PagesAbortion has had a long and dangerous history that is seldomly talked about even today. Recently recognized as a right to women and their bodies, abortion was not an option for most women in the nineteenth century. Prior to Roe v. Wade, there was a system designed to give men control over women†™s biological nature to have children. This created legislation that allowed men to dictate when the birthing process would occur, giving men power over their children and wives. Legislation aimed at women’sRead MoreEssay on History of Abortion508 Words   |  3 Pagesv. Wade Supreme Court decision in 1973, Abortion has changed its course in society. With the new decision made by the United States, abortion was now legal. Many abortions were performed before the Supreme Court decision, but the settlement made it less risky for the doctors involved. Abortion has caused society to be divided by a pro-choice group and pro-life group. Two groups with struggles that will never end. There are many different types of abortions that can be preformed. The type used dependsRead MoreA Look Into Abortion s History1322 Words   |  6 PagesA Look Into Abortion’s History Prior to 1970 abortions were illegal in the United States. It was then when the now popular Roe v. Wade case took place which saw the Supreme Court make any laws regarding the prevention of early-stage abortions unconstitutional. An abortion can be defined as an early termination of an unwanted pregnancy. As a topic of controversy there are many aspects of abortion that are constantly being debated. For example, moral and legal obligations, support from federal andRead MoreAbortion Throughout History Essay2297 Words   |  10 PagesAbortion Has No Excuse Abortion has taken the lives of more than 50 million babies since 1973 (â€Å"About Abortion†). The issue of abortion is one of the most common controversial issues in American politics and culture. In modern society, many women that have an unintended pregnancy and they result to abortion without researching other options. Abortion is not a substitute for birth control and this issue should be taken seriously. The individual woman needs to understand that by agreeing to have anRead MoreEssay on History of Abortion in the United States963 Words   |  4 Pages1820 abortion was legal and practiced, despite the fact that it was a dangerous procedure and more often than not resulted in the death of the mother. it wasnt until after 1821 that abortion started to become regulated and laws were set in place (lewis 2011). in 1879 the first law to be set up was in Connecticut, it was targeted towards merchants that sold poisons to cause miscarriages and drugs to prevent pregnancy and banned the use of the products. By the late 1800s even though abortion was illegalRead More History Of Abortion In The Court Essay1592 Words   |  7 Pages Abortion. The word alone provokes strong emotion in both women and men alike. Roe v. Wade was decided twenty five years ago, but still the fight is not over. Instead, there are mass rallies, bombings of abortion clinics, murders of doctors and workers at such clinics, intimidation, arrest, political lobbying, and numerous Supreme Court cases. What is it that divides families, and keeps old friends from speaking to one another on the topic? Why are opinions so polarized and why are minds so closed

Code of Ethics in Malaysia Free Essays

Rev. : 0 Date : 9. 8. We will write a custom essay sample on Code of Ethics in Malaysia or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2005 BEM/RD/PPC/12 BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO CODE OF ETHICS FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS Serial No: 0021 INTRODUCTION The Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM) has, from time to time, received enquiries and complaints from the public about the conduct of engineers in relation to the Registration of Engineers Act. BEM has, therefore, produced the guidelines herein that outline the conduct expected of engineers. These guidelines are set out under a number of broad areas relating to the engineering profession. Do’s Don’ ts 1) Registration Under the Registration of Engineers Act 1967 (Act 138) and subsequent amendments, the most recent being year 2002, it is a requirement of the Law that any person providing engineering services be a qualified person and registered with the Board of Engineers Malaysia. This requirement extends to foreigners who are required to seek registration as Temporary Engineers. The Do’ and Don’ s ts below relate to the requirement of this Act. DO’s 1. 1 An engineering graduate with accredited engineering degree must register with the Board of Engineers to take up employment as an engineer DON’ Ts 1. 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 An engineer should not be the Submitting Person for designs beyond his/her area of competency An engineer should not endorse his PE Stamp and sign on reports or plans not prepared by him. (see also Consultancy – 2. 3 of Don’ ) t An engineer should not enter into partnership with any party not per mitted under the Engineers Act. An Engineering Consultancy Practice should not provide professional services in any branch of engineering where none of its directors are registered to practise in that branch of engineering. An engineer must not practise in the branch of engineering he is not registered in. ) Consultancy In the Registration of Engineers Act 1967 (Revised 2002), provision is included for the registration of Accredited Checkers and the requirement of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) beginning year 2005. DO’s 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 An engineer should be transparent and receptive to peer review or checking of his work if requested/required by the client/authorities. A checker engineer must be open to the views and design concept of the original designer and in areas of disagreement, the checker must give justification for his disagreement. A checker engineer should take full responsibility for the checking of the work himself. An engineer should undertake continuing professional development to enhance his knowledge and capability. An employer engineer should ensure that his employee engineers are bona fide engineers registered with BEM. An engineer should report unethical practice to BEM. An engineer who is a Submitting Person must ensure the accuracy of and be responsible for all works delegated to others by him. An engineer should make optimum use of manpower, materials and money. An engineer should be aware of Government requirement to use local materials, wherever possible. DON’ Ts 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 A checker engineer should not accept checking of work not within his area of competency as well as work that he is not familiar with. An engineering consultant should not carry out projects for fees below the minimum outlined in the scale of fees. An engineer should not endorse any work not performed and/or supervised by him. An engineer should not supplant another engineer. An engineer should not compromise on public safety. An engineer should not offer his opinion on engineering matters unless he has full facts to support the opinion. An engineer should not base his design on unsubstantiated data, for example designing foundation without soil investigation. An engineer should not have any conflict of interest whatsoever in connection with the work he is undertaking unless prior approval from BEM and client are obtained. An engineer should not accept work outside his regular work without the expressed permission of his employer. 1 3) Supervision The supervision of works designed by the Submitting Engineer is a requirement under the Uniform Building By-Law 5 (UBBL 5). This ByLaw states that supervision must be provided by the Submitting Engineer to ensure that the works carried out are as intended in the design. Delegation of supervision is permitted but the responsibility of this supervision still rests with the Submitting Engineer. DO’s 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 An engineer who is the Submitting Person should be responsible for the project regardless of whether it is self-supervised and/or delegated supervision. An engineer must be meticulously proper and correct in certification of works. An engineer must be familiar with and knowledgeable in the work he is to supervise. An employer engineer shall ensure that his staff undergoes regular and proper skills-training. An engineer supervising a project shall keep proper records of all documents and correspondence pertaining to the project. An engineer must be conversant with time and cost implications in the issuance of any instruction. DON’ Ts 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 An engineer must not over or under certify progress of works. An engineer must not make wrongful certifications. An engineer must not certify work not within his expertise. An engineer must not accept site supervisory staff who are not qualified or are incompetent. An engineer must not delay approvals without justification. An engineer must not intentionally delay inspection of works. 4) Regulatory Requirements All engineers registered with the Board of Engineers Malaysia must be familiar with the requirements of the Registration of Engineers Act 1967 (Act 138) and its subsequent amendments. Ignorance of the requirements of this Act is no defense in the Courts of Law in Malaysia. DO’s 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 An engineer should notify the relevant authorities (within reasonable/statutory time limit) on changes in designs or withdrawal of services. An engineer should submit completed forms in time for inspection and approval for Certificate of Fitness / Certificate of Completion and Compliance. An engineer should be aware of environmental, health and safety matters during and after construction. An engineer should ensure that environmental, health and safety measures are implemented as per drawings and specifications. DON’ Ts 4. 1 4. 2 An engineer should not allow works to proceed before plans are submitted to and/or approved by the relevant authorities. An engineer should not undertake a project for which the client is not going to fulfill statutory requirements. 5) Code of Ethics All engineers are expected to uphold the integrity of the profession by behaving in a manner expected of him in the Code of Conduct of Engineers. DO’s 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 An engineer must be conversant with the Code of Conduct of Engineers. An engineer must understand the need for responsibility and liability as stipulated in the Code of Conduct. An engineer must respond promptly to complaints and enquiries by clients /authorities. DON’ Ts 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 An engineer should not solicit/ tout. An engineer should not knowingly mislead the public by giving misrepresented information so as to gain commercial advantage/mileage. An engineer should not respond to an open advertisement to bid for provision of professional service if such provision for the service requires bidding fees or equivalent as is usually imposed on contractors. An engineer should avoid favoritism among vendors and other suppliers. These guidelines are by no means exhaustive and will be updated from time to time to reflect the changing needs of the profession. All engineers are required to be fully familiar with the Registration of Engineers Act 1967 (Act 138), and its subsequent amendments, and the Code of Ethics. The requirements of this Act are to be upheld at all times by the engineering profession. 2 How to cite Code of Ethics in Malaysia, Essay examples

Gothic Cathedrals Essay Example For Students

Gothic Cathedrals Essay For nearly four hundred years Gothic style dominated the architecture of Western Europe. It originated in northern France in the twelfth century, and spread rapidly across England and the Continent, invading the old Viking empire of Scandinavia. It confronted the Byzantine provinces of Central Europe and even made appearances in the near East and the Americas. Gothic architects designed town halls, royal palaces, courthouses, and hospitals. They fortified cities and castles to defend lands against invasion. But it was in the service of the church, the most prolific builder of the Middle Ages, that the Gothic tyle got its most meaningful expression, providing the widest scope for the development of architectural ideas. 1 Although by 1400 Gothic had become the universal style of building in the Western world, its creative heartland was in northern France in an area stretching from the royal domain around Paris, including Saint-Denis and Chartres, to the region of the Champagne in the east and southward to Bourges. Within this restricted area, in the series of cathedrals built in the course of the 12th and 13th centuries, the major innovations of Gothic architecture took The supernatural character of medieval religious architecture was given special form in the Gothic church. Medieval man considered himself but an imperfect refraction of Divine Light of God, Whose Temple stood on earth, according to the text of the dedication ritual, stood for the Heavenly City of Jerusalem. 3 The Gothic interpretation of this point of view was a cathedral so grand that seems to belittle the man who enters it, for space, light, structure and the plastic effects of the stonework are made to produce a visionary scale. The result of the Gothic style is distortion as there is no fixed set of proportions in the parts. Such architecture did not only express the physical nd spiritual needs of the Church, but also the general attitude of the people of that time. Gothic was not dark, massive, and contained like the older Romanesque style, but light, open, and aerial, and its appearance in all parts of Europe had an enduring effect on the outlook of succeeding generations. 4 Gothic architecture evolved at a time of profound social and economic change in Western Europe. In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries trade and industry were revived, particularly in northern Italy and Flanders, and a lively commerce brought about better communications, not only between neighboring towns ut also between far-distant regions. Politically, the twelfth century was also the time of the expansion and consolidation of the State. Along with political and economic developments, a powerful new intellectual movement arose that was stimulated by the translation of ancient authors from Greek and Arabic into Latin, and a new literature came into being. Gothic architecture both contributed to these changes and was affected by them. 5 The Gothic style was essentially urban. The cathedrals of course were all situated in towns, and most monasteries, had by the twelfth century become enters of communities which possessed many of the functions of civic life. The cathedral or abbey church was the building in which the people congregated on major feast days. It saw the start and the end of splendid and colorful ceremonies, and it held the earliest dramatic performances. The abbey traditionally comprised at least a cloister, a dormitory and a refectory for the monks. But the cathedral also was around a complex of buildings, the bishops palace, a cloister and the house of canons, a school, a prison, and a hospital. However the cathedral dominated them all, rising high above the town like a The architectural needs of the Church were expressed in both physical and iconographical terms. .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a , .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .postImageUrl , .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a , .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a:hover , .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a:visited , .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a:active { border:0!important; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a:active , .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u50d5e80cc9eba397178de2551677bd9a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: What contribution did Adam Smith and John M Keynes EssayLike its Romanesque predecessor, the Gothic cathedral was eminently adaptable. It could be planned larger or smaller, longer or shorter, with or without transepts and ambulatory, according to the traditions and desires of each community. It had no predetermined proportions or number of parts, like the Roman temple or the centrally planned church of the Renaissance. Its social and liturgical obligations demanded a main altar at the end of a choir where the chapter and the various dignitaries would be seated, a number f minor altars, and an area for processions within the building. There were rarely more than about two hundred persons participating in the service, even though the smallest Gothic cathedral could easily contain that number. The rest of the building simply supplemented this core and provided space for the laity, who were not permitted to enter the choir or sanctuary. Still, after the middle of the twelfth century, the choir was usually isolated by a monumental screen that effectively prevented laymen from even seeing the service, and special devotional books came into use to supply the congregation with suitable subjects The program of the Gothic church fulfilled iconographical as well as social requirements. The intellectual centers of the Middle Ages had long been associated with the Church, and the tradition of learning that had been preserved in monastic and cathedral schools gave rise to universities such as Paris and Oxford in the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Such an association obviously had an effect on the arts, which were still primarily religious in nature. Scholarly clerics, for instance, were appointed to arrange the intricate, theological programs for the sculpture and the stained glass that decorated the church. The relationship is thought by some historians to have been even closer, for scholastic thinking first took shape in Paris early in the twelfth century, at the very time that Gothic architecture came into being there. It is possible that architects, who were abstract thinkers in their own right, may occasionally have absorbed some of the habits of thought of the philosophers. In the absence of written documents, however, it cannot be proved whether these habits were consistently embodied in the design of the buildings. 9 The Gothic age, as has often been observed, was an age of vision. The supernatural manifested itself to the senses. In the religious life of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the desire to behold sacred reality with bodily eyes appeared as the dominant theme. Architecture was designed and experienced as a representation of an ultimate reality. 10 The Gothic cathedral was originated in the religious experience and in the political and even physical realities, of twelfth-century France. It was described as an illusionistic image of the Celestial City as evoked in the Book of Revelation. The essence of Gothic style was most fully developed in its conquest of space and its creation of a prodigious, visionary scale in the cathedrals of the